Important Contributions of Groundbreaking Discoveries and Innovations

The pace of discovery and innovation has been incredible, with many groundbreaking findings and inventions transforming our lives in profound ways.

The invention of the microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 revolutionized the field of biology, allowing scientists to study microorganisms and their role in disease.

The discovery of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 unlocked the secrets of genetics, paving the way for major advances in medicine and biotechnology.

The development of the internet has enabled unprecedented global connectivity, transforming the way we communicate, work, and access information.

Chien-Shiung Wu made significant contributions to atomic science, improving technology for radiation detection and uranium enrichment, and devising an experiment to prove a theory on beta decay.

Physicist Wu's work was often overlooked, including not receiving the 1957 Nobel Prize, despite being a pioneer for women in STEM.

Joseph Kinyoun and his colleagues were the first in the US to make a bacteriological diagnosis of cholera in 1887, marking a major breakthrough in infectious disease research.

The National Institutes of Health have played a crucial role in developing recombinant DNA technology, which has given birth to genetic engineering and the biotechnology industry.

Joseph Goldberger's field investigations in the 1910s and 1920s demonstrated that pellagra was caused by a nutritional deficiency, leading to the identification of niacin as the deficient nutrient in 1937.

Mae Carol Jemison is a trailblazer in the field of science and technology. She was born on October 17, 1956.

Mae is a true pioneer, becoming the first African American woman to travel in space. She made history aboard the space shuttle Endeavour on September 12, 1992.

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Kizzmekia Corbett is a viral immunologist who started working at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2014. She was part of the team that developed the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, the first to enter clinical trials in the United States.

Dr. Corbett's previous work includes studying human antibody responses to dengue virus in Sri Lankan children at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. This experience likely helped her understand how the human body responds to different viruses.

In 2020, Dr. Corbett's team at the NIH made a significant breakthrough in developing a vaccine for COVID-19.

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Neil deGrasse Tyson is a renowned astrophysicist who has been sharing his love for astrophysics with the public since 1986.

Neil deGrasse Tyson received the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal and numerous other prestigious awards for his contributions to science communication.

He's known for his passion for astrophysics, which started at the age of nine when he visited the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History.

29 years after that fateful visit, Neil deGrasse Tyson became the Hayden Planetarium's youngest director.

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Gladys West was a mathematician who leveraged her mathematical and programming expertise to invent an accurate model of the Earth.

She was born and raised in Virginia, which is a great example of how someone from a specific region can make a significant impact in the world of science and technology.

Gladys West's model of the Earth was used as the foundation for the creation of the Global Positioning System (GPS), which is something we all use in our daily lives.

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She was the second Black woman ever to be employed by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division, showing that determination and hard work can lead to great achievements.

Gladys West was inducted into the United States Air Force Hall of Fame, one of the highest honors awarded by the Air Force, demonstrating the significance of her contributions to science and technology.

Ethnic Minority Psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the science and practice of psychology with racial and ethnic minority individuals and groups.

Derald W. Sue and his brother Stanley Sue were influential figures in this field, with Derald W. Sue being best known for his work on multicultural counseling and racial microaggression.

In 1972, the Sue brothers founded the Asian American Psychological Association, one year after writing a seminal paper on Chinese American personality.

Derald W. Sue's work has had a significant impact on the field of psychology, and his research on racial microaggression continues to be relevant today.

The Sue brothers' contributions to ethnic minority psychology have paved the way for further research and understanding of the experiences of racial and ethnic minority individuals and groups.

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The key to biomedical research lies in its early focus on infectious diseases, with scientists like Joseph Kinyoun making a bacteriological diagnosis of cholera in 1887.

One of the pioneers in this field was Joseph Kinyoun, who worked in New York City and made a significant breakthrough in understanding cholera.

The study of infectious diseases led to important discoveries, such as the relationship between poor living conditions, meager diet, and disease, demonstrated by Charles Stiles and Joseph Goldherger in their studies of hookworm disease and pellagra.

These studies helped stimulate full-time county health work and paved the way for future research on chronic diseases.

After World War II, the focus of research shifted to chronic diseases, including those of the heart and kidneys, cancer, and neurological disorders.

NIH scientists have played a crucial role in this area, making significant contributions to our understanding of human biology, including immunology, genetics, and cellular and molecular biology.

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Their work has led to the development of recombinant DNA technology, which has given birth to genetic engineering and the new biotechnology industry.

NIH scientists have won Nobel Prizes for their work on deciphering the genetic code, the three-dimensional structure of proteins, and the discovery of how brain cells communicate with each other.

Joseph Goldberger's field investigations in the South during the 1910s and early 1920s demonstrated that pellagra was caused by a nutritional deficiency, which could be cured by adding fresh milk, meat, or yeast to the diet.

The deficient nutrient was later identified as niacin, a member of the vitamin B complex, in 1937.

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Policymakers can learn from promising practices in pension systems, such as those in South Dakota, Tennessee, and Wisconsin, which operate under policies that achieve cost and benefit goals, manage risks, and focus on retirement security.

These states have implemented policies like funding above the actuarial contribution and lowering return assumptions, which have proven to be effective tools in improving pension funding.

Several states are adopting or weighing additional promising policies that could make costs more predictable without jeopardizing plan solvency or retirement security.

Policies like establishing variable-benefit provisions and using stress testing and risk analysis have stood out in Pew's analysis as effective tools to improve pension funding.

By studying these promising practices, policymakers can gain valuable insights into creating more sustainable and secure pension systems.

Chien-Shiung Wu, a Chinese-born physicist, made significant contributions to atomic science in the 1940s and 1950s. She improved technology for detecting radiation and enriching uranium in large quantities during the Manhattan Project.

Her work on beta decay led to a groundbreaking experiment in 1956, which proved a theory on the subject. Wu was asked by Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang to devise an experiment to test their theory, and she successfully carried it out.

Wu's research on beta decay was a major achievement in atomic science, but she was overlooked for the 1957 Nobel Prize, which was awarded to Lee and Yang instead.

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Larry Itliong, a labor organizer from the Philippines, played a pivotal role in the Delano Grape Strike of 1965, which led to the formation of the United Farm Workers and improved working conditions for agricultural workers.

Delores Huerta and Cesar Chavez joined Itliong's efforts, and their combined union made significant strides for farm workers, securing wage increases, a medical plan, and establishing clinics, a day care center, and a school.

Yuri Kochiyama's civil rights work extended beyond her own community, as she befriended and collaborated with Malcolm X in the 1960s and continued to work with Black civil rights activists after his death.

Kochiyama's activism was influenced by her experience in internment camps during World War II, and she later campaigned for reparations and a formal government apology, which became a reality in 1988 with the signing of the Civil Liberties Act by President Ronald Reagan.

Annie Easley was a trailblazer in the field of computer science. She worked at NASA as a human computer, performing complex mathematical calculations before computers were widely available.

Easley's work at NASA was instrumental in the development of early alternative energy solutions. She helped develop and implement code for numerous projects.

As computers became more prevalent, Easley transitioned into computer programming and became an expert in her field. Her contributions to NASA's projects were invaluable.

Easley's legacy serves as a testament to the power of perseverance and determination.

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Ed Dwight was America's first Black astronaut candidate. He completed a U.S. Air Force training program from which NASA selected astronauts. Ed earned a B.S. in aeronautical engineering from Arizona State University before training to become an astronaut.

Larry Itliong, a labor organizer from the Philippines, played a pivotal role in the fight for farm workers' rights. Born in the Philippines, he immigrated to the United States at 15 and began working as a laborer.

In 1956, Itliong formed the Filipino Farm Labor Union, which would later merge with the National Farm Workers Association. The union's efforts led to the Delano Grape Strike in 1965, where 1,500 Filipino grape-pickers demanded higher wages and improved working conditions.

The strike gained momentum, and the United Farm Workers was eventually formed, combining the efforts of Itliong's union and the National Farm Workers Association. The strike ended in 1970, but not before achieving major strides for agricultural workers.

Delores Huerta, a key figure in the movement, noted the significant gains made during the strike, including wage increases, a medical plan, and the establishment of five clinics, a day care center, and a school.

Yuri Kochiyama was a Japanese American civil rights activist who broke barriers by working with activists from various communities, including Black, Latinx, and Indigenous Peoples. Her activism was deeply personal, informed by her own experiences in internment camps during World War II.

Kochiyama befriended and collaborated with Malcolm X in the 1960s, and continued to work with Black civil rights activists after his death. Her work with Malcolm X was a key part of her broader commitment to social justice.

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In the 1980s, Kochiyama and her husband campaigned for reparations and a formal government apology for Japanese Americans interned during World War II. This effort became a reality in 1988, when President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act into law.

Kochiyama's home in New York City was a hub for civil rights activism, with weekly open houses that drew activists from across the city. Her daughter, Audee Kochiyama-Holman, remembered that "Our house felt like it was the movement 24/7."

Amanda Nguyen, a Harvard University student, wrote the Sexual Assault Survivors' Rights Act of 2016 after finding it difficult to access information on her rights as a survivor of sexual assault.

This legislation provides survivors with crucial guarantees, including the right to a free rape kit procedure, and requires that kits be preserved for 20 years.

Amanda Nguyen's efforts have been recognized with a nomination for a Nobel Peace Prize in 2019.

She is the founder and CEO of Rise, a coalition that advocates for survivors' rights and assists people in writing and passing their own bills.

Nguyen's determination to create change is an inspiration to many, and her work has made a significant impact on the lives of survivors of sexual violence.

Chinese immigrants played a vital role in building the Transcontinental Railroad, a feat that was initially met with reluctance from railroad companies.

At first, railroad companies were hesitant to hire Chinese workers.

However, the immigrants soon proved to be essential to the project's success.

The Chinese immigrants' hard work and dedication helped make the Transcontinental Railroad a reality.

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Wong Tsu's work at Boeing in 1916-17 led to the company's first military plane, airmail plane, and passenger plane.

Innovators like Wong Tsu have made significant contributions in the marketplace and for public benefit. His legacy shows how one person's work can have a lasting impact on the industry.

Duke University's innovators have also made a significant impact with over $102.5 million in licensing revenue in fiscal year 2023.

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The USB revolutionized data transfer, becoming one of the most popular ways to share files between devices. It's hard to imagine a time without it, but it's a testament to the power of innovation.

Ajay Bhatt, an Indian American computer architect, is credited with developing the USB. He was surprised by its impact, saying his name became a common name in technical communities and he even received rock star treatment.

The USB emerged on the tech scene in the late 1990s and quickly became a game-changer. It's a great example of how a single invention can have a profound effect on our daily lives.

Bhatt's invention elevated him to celebrity status in the computer world, with people asking for his signature and picture. It's a reminder that innovation can lead to unexpected recognition and rewards.

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Stress testing and risk analysis are crucial tools for managing uncertainty and volatility in public pension plans. By 2022, 27 states were conducting at least some level of risk analysis, up from just seven in 2012.

States that use risk analysis and stress testing are better equipped to anticipate and address potential threats to their pension systems. For instance, Colorado used stress testing to identify a 1 in 4 chance of insolvency and took preventive action.

Stress testing helps policymakers make informed decisions by evaluating scenarios that might strain public pension plan balance sheets. In 2020, 20 states with a formal stress testing requirement had a clear understanding of their pension system's risks.

Risk analysis and stress testing are not one-size-fits-all solutions, and each state's approach may vary. New Jersey policymakers used stress testing to evaluate their pension funding policy during the COVID-19 pandemic and found that skipping previously planned contribution increases would threaten the sustainability of their pension plans.

By conducting regular risk analysis and stress testing, states can avoid costly surprises and ensure the long-term sustainability of their pension systems.

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